What are the main causes of depression in gay people among sent-down youth in China during the period of cultural revolution?

这个是我的social research的literature review 的作业。在这个地方记录下自己的学生生活

Introduction

The Chinese Cultural Revolution happened from 1966 to 1976, it did not only hurt the China’s economy significantly, but was also a disaster for the culture that caused unprecedented damage (Jian, Song & Zhou, 2009, p. 32). Under the broad background of cultural revolution, there was a movement called the Sent-Down Youth Movement that was launched in 1968, initiated by Mao Zedong (Honig & Zhao, 2015). The ‘Sent-Down Youth’ also known as ‘Intellectual Youth’ or Rusticates, refers to the young people that graduated from high school - a relatively high diploma at that time -  in the city and were taken from their original cities and been sent to rural areas of China as laborers for several years (Lin, 2013).  About 17 million sent-down youth has been involved in this movement between 1966 and 1978 (Lin, 2013). There is no doubt that among those 17 million youths, many of them are gays and lesbians. 

This review aims to directly assess how the big picture of social context background impacted gay people’s lives and guide research of the main factors that contribute to the depression among gay sent-down youths during the Chinese Cultural Revolution[GE1] . As one of the darkest histories for Chinese and especially for gay people, it should be examined and explored with abundant articles, however, only few records or research about gay people who lived through that period are available. 

In 2001, Suleski argues in a book review that there are only few credits [GE2] direct information about gay’s life in China. This research will be another rare attempt to reveal one of the millions of unanswered questions about on which aspects that the Cultural Revolution have impacted gay people, especially younger gay people’s lives during that 10 years of tragedy. In this review, the term ‘gay’ refers to male homosexuals, therefore, this review will not explore those impacts towards lesbians, transgenders and bisexuals[GE3] .

The review of the literature

Depression. We hear the term ‘depression’ a lot nowadays. But what is depression? Or what does the term ‘depression’ refer to in this literature review? Wasserman (2011, p.V) argues that just like other illnesses, depression is a ‘psychiatric illness’ that must be addressed and be treated. This absolute stance about depression is closely in relation to the author’s background as a professor and psychiatrist in the mental health or psychological field (Wasserman, 2011, p.V). Under this definition, depression might need to be assessed and diagnosed and then we can claim a person has depression. It is obvious that this definition does not fit our context because (make the link overt). Probably we can have a better understanding about depression during the Cultural Revolution era from the sociological perspective[GE4] . Horwitz (2011) clearly explains how a sociology of psychiatric illness sees depression: it is a result of ‘political struggles, powerful economic interests’ and forcing moral narratives that making medical professional to against those advocacy groups.  [GE5] Horwitz (2011) also argues that studying depression can help people to understand how the emergence and results can be impacted through socially and culturally. The perception of depression and other mental health issues by the medical professionals or more directly in this case, the state government during the Cultural Revolution is an good example for Horwitz’s argument.  In fact, it was impossible to diagnose depression or other mental health issues. Ma (2003) believes that during the Cultural Revolution, mental disorders like depression have a different meaning, rather seen as illness, mental health issues were seen as the consequences of being immoral or having ‘backward thoughts[GE6] ’. Thus, for this research topic, we cannot define the term ‘depression’ based on the modern psychological concept. For the objects in the research topic, we are not able to know if they could be diagnosed as depression from the medical perspective. However, just as Ainsworth (2000, p. 8) described that depressed people usually feel hopeless, useless, helpless and worthless. Given that, in this topic, the term ‘depression’ refers to the feelings of extremely helpless ,hopeless and worthlessness as we can find out how people feel during that time[GE7] .

Depression among gay youth in general.  Plenty of research has been done in this area. In their research, Marshal et al. (2011) used separate meta-analysis method to compare the differences of rates of depression symptoms between sexual minority youth (SMY) and heterosexual youth[GE8] . Their article acknowledges that depression is a challenge for young people as a whole as it has been became the third factors that caused the death among youth people in America (Bridge et al.,  as cited in Marshal et al., 2011)and depression is the major factors that contribute to the suicide attempts for adolescence and young adults (Marshal et al., 2011). Their research shows that there is a significant difference between gay youth and heterosexual youth in trems of depression (Marshal et al., 2011[GE9] ). Other studies also proved that gay youths are more vulnerable to the risk of depression. It is suggested that the risk of being depressed among lesbian, gay, bi, trans and intersex (LGBTQI) has been increased and it seems that younger gay men are more likely to become depression than older ones (Beyond Blue, 2019). 

The fact that the social context that LGBT people lives in bring them many unpleasant experiences such as rejection, victimization, discrimination and intolerance (Savin-Williams & Wyss as cited in Gibbs & Rice, 2015), and the repetition of those experiences are the factors that lead LGBT people to some mental health issues(Mays, Cochran, Barnes & Meyer as cited in Gibbs & Rice, 2015). This finding is in accordance with Marshal et al. (2011)’ s conclusion that[GE10]  the disparities in terms of depression between SMY and heterosexual youth might be caused by unpleasant experiences like discrimination and victimization. Notably, both their research was conducted under the social context of gay people in the modern society, besides America and Australia are more tolerance to LGBT compare with many other countries.  It seems that those findings are meaningless to this literature, however, those articles point out that rejection, victimization, discrimination and intolerance are the key factors for the depression of gay youths. Therefore, those works guide me where should I focus on this literature review[GE11] . The major difference may be to which extent did those factors leads to gay sent-down youths’ depression during the Cultural revolution. In the later part of this review, I will present readers with the rejection, victimization, discrimination and intolerance factors of the social context for gay people during the cultural revolution. 

Systematic oppression towards gay people during the Cultural Revolution. Some scholars believes that Mao’s idea about Cultural Revolution has impacted the gay liberation movements directly and it ‘nurtured feminist and gay rights activism’ in Europe (Lovell, 2016,p.633).  Even if it did inspire the gay rights movement in Europe later, this conclusion is quite ironic as the Cultural Revolution itself is not a friendly place for gay people to live in. In contrast, gay men were facing extremely oppression structurally. Jolly (2001, p.489) explains that ‘there really was a blanketing of any public discussion’ in relation to sex, homosexuality in particular. This kind of vague description may make readers confused, or even mislead them: readers may underestimate the severity of those discussions and behaviours that might disclose someone as gay. Compared to the severity of damage brought by the Cultural revolution and its significant impact to Chinese history after that movement, articles or research about that history shows a great insufficiency, let alone study gay people during the movement. 

Even Worth et al. (2019)’s article focuses on gay people during the period of the opening-up of China, their work touches on issues during the Cultural Revolution as well. One thing I found this article is impressive is that the authors involve scholars from some top high education institutions in mainland China. There are not so many studies about gay people during Cultural revolution that are participated by scholars from mainland China, part of the reason is that the resistance comes from the government[GE12] . News articles shows that China does not welcome the discussion Cultural revolution in an open and free manner (Tatlow, 2016), that might include the thwarting of the operation of a local museum (Tatlow, 2016) or force a movie about Cultural revolution to withdraw from joining an international film festival (Qin, 2019). This actually reflects the continuity of the systematic oppression. It shows that the systematic oppression was not only existing during the Cultural Revolution and targeting gay people but also happens to the research and study about that movement itself. 

In Worth et al. (2019)’s work, it shows us a practical way of systematic oppression during that time. By conducting a qualitative research, more specifically in this case - oral history method, researchers interviewed 31 people that recruited through snowball sampling across four cities in China (Worth[GE13]  et al.,2019) and presented their experiences as a gay man from the cultural revolution to the post-reform era. Through those interviews, they present readers the attitude from the government towards gay people: homosexual was considered by the government as something that is against natural, decadent and not something that should not exist in a communism society (Worth et al.,2019). This actually contains two kinds oppression towards gay people. One oppression is from the legal perspective, even though homosexuality was not a crime, hooliganism is crime and that what was the government used to against gay people during the Cultural Revolution (Worth et al.,2019). Li (as cited in Worth et al.,2019) explains that it was first started from the Cultural Revolution that gay people was charged as criminal through sodomy, one of the hooliganisms. The oppression also comes from political level, that gay people are considered as ‘bad elements’ like landlords or capitalists (Geyer as cited in Worth et al.,2019).Worth et al. (2019)’s research also reveals that Red Guards raised the sexuality to the class level that homosexuality is one of those enemies of the class. However, the authors of this article did not compare with these two oppressions: as during a political movement, the consequences of being the ‘class enemy’ was much worse than simply being a criminal. In a book about Cultural Revolution edited by Brown & Johnson (2015, p.19),Yang Kui Song, a Chinese scholar, explains that the class enemy is an exceedingly serious charge as it ‘stood in direct opposition to the Party[GE14] ’.

Relationship or sex among gay people during the Cultural Revolution. Whitton and Kuryluk (as cited in Starks, Millar, Doyle & Parsons, 2017) suggest that gay couples who are less satisfied about their relationship is more likely to have the symptoms of depression. Thus, in order to find out the main causes of depression among gay sent-down youth, we might need to find out their relationship status. In Worth et al. (2019)’s studies, one man they interviewed disclose that they were facing crucial challenges of having a long-term relationship with other gay men: one of the reasons is that the more intimacy relationship with two males would bring troubles to both of them. The literature did not mention what kind of troubles they may face, how did they feel about being gay, also, if they were worried to be found their sexual identity and how did that fear impact their daily lives[GE15] .

One of the questions was answered in the book edited by Brown and Johnson (2015, p.40), in the first chapter of the book, it tells us a story about Zeng Qiren, even though he has already being charged with many political crimes and has been under some investigations,  what nearly destroyed him mentally was that his sexual orientation has been noted by officials and that resulted in attempting to ‘end his life’. The detailed description provides the readers the process, step by step, of how a man being labelled as ‘bad element’ and sentenced to prison for seven years because his ‘evil habit of sodomy from the old society’ (Brown & Johnson, 2015, p.49). This book clearly indicated that Zeng Qiren has been depressed and tried to kill himself twice because of his sexual identity (Brown & Johnson, 2015, p.41[GE16] ).

This book is highly valuable, not only because it is a rare record about gay men’s suffering during the Cultural Revolution, but also the controversial of Zeng Qiren, even he did broke some moral standards of that historical period, he is a victim of sexual abuse, he has been raped, even it was happened before the Cultural Revolution(Brown & Johnson, 2015, p.50), the similar case may also happened among the sent-down youth, it can provide a direction for further research. If one gay person was being caught during the Cultural Revolution, all his partners might feel depressed too as forced by the government, the one that being caught would had to report their names as well. When Zeng Qiren was caught as gay, he had to confess and the confession including disclose all his previous partners and same sex behaviours (Brown & Johnson, 2015, p.50). It is worth noting that Zeng Qiren was a victim of sexual abuse before the Cultural Revolution: he had been raped (Brown & Johnson, 2015, p.50). That might provide a direction for further research in the future: sexual abuse issue among gay youth during Cultural Revolution. However[GE17] , Brown and Johnson’s book is only about one certain person, it might cannot represent all the gay men. 

Not all scholars agree with Brown and Johnson’s description that Cultural Revolution is an absolute crucial time for gay people. Worth et al.,’s research explored the gay people among the sent-down youth.   In a research, 31 gay men that were found through snowball sampling told their stories during the Cultural Revolution, some of the interviewees disclosed that they had the chance to explore their sexuality as they were away from their families (Worth et al., 2017). They showed paradox situation of gay men during the Cultural Revolution, on one hand, they were persecuted, on the other hand, they had the personal freedom to some extent, and they used it as an opportunity to explore their homosexuality. It sounds convincing, but there are still have some questions that we need to know. They were being forced away from their families and they did something that their parents will strongly disagree with, will that make they feel guilty?  Did they miss their families? How much joy did they have and how long can that joy last? And which one dominated their feelings for most of the time: the missing of their families or the joy of having sex or relationship with another men?  Studies about experiences in relation to gay men during the Cultural Revolution is almost blank (Worth et al., 2017), that makes all the current literatures are valuable ones[GE18] . Also, that is why this research is crucial, any works that try to explore issues about gay people in the period of Cultural Revolution would be valuable.

Conclusion

This review aimed to explore the main factors that caused depression among gay people among sent-down youth during the Cultural Revolution in China. While findings about the factors that can cause sent-down youth gay depression is nearly blank as literature about gay people during Cultural Revolution is terribly insufficient, we gain some information about potential causes for gay people during the Cultural Revolution, for example, from the systematic oppression and their experiences about relationship or sex. Some of the stressors are criminalisation and being labelled as enemy of the class which is even worse than being a criminal. Stressors in terms of experiences about relationship and sex are the fear that their sexuality are being found out, or one of their partners were being caught and they were being disclosed to the government. That can in accordance with the depression factors among gay youth in the modern society like rejection, victimization, discrimination and intolerance.  However, Cultural Revolution is a different context, there might other factors that can leads to the depression among gay youth.  It is proposed that future studies could further explore the impact of the perception and knowledge about gay or same sex behaviour on their depression. Those two factors may be two distinct stressors for gay people among sent-down youth during the Chinese Cultural Revolution[GE19] .

References

Ainsworth, P. (2000). Understanding Depression. Retrieved from Ainsworth, P. (2000). Understanding Depression (Understanding Consumer Health). Jackson: University Press of Mississippi.

Beyond Blue. (2019). Factors affecting LGBTI people. Retrieved from  https://www.beyondblue.org.au/who-does-it-affect/lesbian-gay-bi-trans-and-intersex-lgbti-people/factors-affecting-lgbti-people

Brown.J., & Johnson, M.D. (2015). Maoism at the grassroots: everyday life in China’s era of high socialism (pp.19-50). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press

Yang, K.S.,(2015). How a “Bad Element” Was Made: The Discovery, Accusation, and Punishment of Zang Qiren. In book Brown. J., & Johnson, M.D., Maoism at the grassroots: everyday life in China’s era of high socialism (pp.19-50). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press

Gibbs, J., & Rice, E. (2015). The Social Context of Depression Symptomology in Sexual Minority Male Youth: Determinants of Depression in a Sample of Grindr Users. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(2), 1-22. doi:10.1080/00918369.2015.1083773

Honig, E., & Zhao, X. (2015). Sent-down Youth and Rural Economic Development in Maoist China. 222, 499-521. doi:10.1017/S0305741015000363

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Jolly, M. (2001). Coming Out of the Coming Out Story: Writing Queer Lives. Sexualities, 4(4), 474-496. doi:10.1177/136346001004004005

Lovell, J. (2016). The Cultural Revolution and Its Legacies in International Perspective. 227, 632-652. doi:10.1017/S0305741016000722

Marshal, Michael P., Dietz, Laura J., Friedman, Mark S., Stall, Ron, Smith, Helen A., Mcginley, James, . . . Brent, David A. (2011). Suicidality and Depression Disparities Between Sexual Minority and Heterosexual Youth: A Meta-Analytic Review. Journal of Adolescent Health, 49(2), 115-123. doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.02.005

Qin,A.(2019). Film Set in China’s Cultural Revolution Is Pulled From Berlin Festival. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2019/02/13/world/asia/zhang-yimou-berlin-film-festival.html?_ga=2.76611473.523610901.1556469687-50861496.1556100698

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Starks, T. J., Millar, B. M., Doyle, K., & Parsons, J. T.(2017). Eriksonian intimacy development, relationship satisfaction, and depression in gay male couples. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(2), 241-250. doi:10.1037/sgd0000225

Tatlow, D,K.(2016). Fate Catches Up to a Cultural Revolution Museum in China. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2016/10/03/world/asia/china-cultural-revolution-shantou-museum.html?_ga=2.5300151.523610901.1556469687-50861496.1556100698

Wasserman,D. (2011). Depression.(2nd ed). Retrieved from http://web.a.ebscohost.com.ezproxy.cdu.edu.au/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzQ2NzY3M19fQU41?sid=e7998d39-665f-4e9e-81a0-812a2bd486f2@sdc-v-sessmgr01&vid=0&format=EB&rid=1

Worth,H., Jing,J., Mcmillan,K. Su, C.Y., Fu,X.X., Yuping.Z., . . . Youchun, Z.(2017). “Under the Same Quilt”: The Paradoxes of Sex Between Men in the Cultural Revolution. Journal of Homosexuality, 64(1), 61-74. doi:10.1080/00918369.2016.1172879

Worth,H., Jing,J., Mcmillan,K. Su, C.Y., Fu,X.X., Yuping.Z., . . . Youchun, Z.( (2019). ‘There was no mercy at all’: Hooliganism, homosexuality and the opening-up of China. International Sociology, 34(1), 38-57. doi:10.1177/0268580918812265